| On
behalf of the Editor, the following reports
were voluntarily solicited from their authors
by Lorna Abungu, of the National Museums
of Kenya, Nairobi (abungu@arcc.or.ke).
The
evolution of modern human behaviour in East
Africa
Stanley
Ambrose, (University of Illinois, USA)
Mwanzia
Kyule (University of Nairobi, Kenya and
University of Illinois, USA)
Genetic
evidence suggests an African origin for
modern human anatomy, and archaeological
evidence suggests a sub-Saharan African
origin for modern human behaviour. Testing
the latter hypothesis requires a reliable,
precise and accurate chronology for the
first appearance of innovations considered
hallmarks of the origin of modern human
behaviour, including ground bone tools,
arts, ornamentation, sophisticated stone
tool technologies and resource patterns,
and systematic trade over long distances.
These
innovations are conventionally associated
with the transition from the middle to the
later Stone Age. This transition may be
earlier than the middle to the upper Palaeolithic
transition of N. Africa and W. Eurasia,
but this is difficult to prove because most
chronometric techniques that can be used
in this time range (40,000-100,000 years
ago) are highly unreliable, particularly
radiocarbon dating.
Advances
in techniques of radiogenic argon dating
(40 Ar/39 Ar) by single-crystal laser-fusion
dating of volcanic tephra make it possible
to obtain accurate and precise dates on
eruptions as young as 2000 years old. The
central and the southern Rift Valley regions
of Kenya have many middle and early Later
Stone Age sites with stratified volcanics.
The primary sources of traded obsidian are
in the central Rift and the southern and
the southern Rift sites often have excellent
bone preservation. Several archaeological
sites with multiple, stratified volcanic
horizons have now been sampled in both areas
of the Rift. In the southern Rift, test
excavations have been conducted at four
sites that have MSA and/or early LSA horizons.
Each site has two to four volcanic layers
stratified within the archaeological deposits.
Argon dating will be performed by Dr. Alan
Deino at the Berkeley Geochronology Centre
in the USA. Amino acids racemization of
ostrich eggshell provides an additional
means of dating archaeological sites. Dr.
Grifford Miller of the University of Colorado,
Boulder, has dated the of an 8-metre thick
Early LSA to MSA sequence to 32,000 BP.
The shell also produced a radiocarbon date
of 29,975 BP. The MSA /LSA transition occurs
approximately 7 metres below this date,
and one metre below a volcanic ash. The
late MSA and transitional horizons have
high frequencies of traded obsidian. The
results of chronometric dating on the tephra
associated with the transitional industries
at two of these sites should make it possible
to test the hypothesis of an East African
origin for modern human behaviour.
Acknowledgements
We
thank the Office of the President of Kenya
for research clearance, the LSB Leakey Foundation,
the University of Illinois Graduate College
and Research Board, and the National Museums
of Kenya, for financial and/or logistical
support for this research.
New
archaeological finds from the coast of Tanzania
Felix
A. Chami (University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania)
The
last five years have seen several archaeological
campaigns on the coast and offshore islands
of Tanzania. The campaigns were geared at
shedding light on the people reported by
the Graeco-Roman documents to have settled
on this coast of East Africa then known
as Azania. The research work concentrated
around the area south of Dar es Salaam to
the Rufiji Delta, and the off-shore islands
of the Zanzibar and Mafia archipelago.
Many
settlement sites of early iron-using people
dated to between the 1st century
BC and 5th century AD have been
found and excavated. The excavation work
has found remains of goods traded from the
Middle East and the Mediterranean world.
The Roman beads, made at Rhoses, from Rufiji
are dated to between the last century BC
to the 3rd century AD. Furthermore,
it was found that Late Stone Age people
had already settled in the areas where sites
of early iron-using people are found. These
people had used microlithic tools including
the backed geometric ones. This suggests
that it is these people of the Late Stone
Age who were first involved in transoceanic
trade and then adopted iron technology.
The same Late Stone Age people had already
sailed through the deep Indian Ocean channel
to settle on the islands of Mafia and Zanzibar.
The
last five years of research have established
the existence of a large population concentration
around the Rufiji Delta in the period of
early iron-using in the first five centuries
AD. Many archaeologically-rich sites spreading
for several kilometres on the northern hills
of the Rufiji Delta suggest that the areas
had a large centre administering the population.
This could be Rhapta mentioned in the Periplus
and Ptolemys Geography.
Such large population would also have required
stable food resources. Indications are now
emerging that this civilization could have
adopted irrigation agriculture.
Some
reports and synthesis of the five year research
can now be read in the following publications:
Chami,
F. 1998 A Review of Swahili Archaeology.
African
Archaeological Review 15(3):199-221.
Chami,
F. 1999 Graeco-Roman Trade Link and the
Bantu Migration Theory. Anthropos
94(1-3):205-215.
Chami,
F. 1999 Roman Beads from the Rufiji Delta,
Tanzania. First Incontrovertible Archaeological
Link with Periplus. Current
Anthropology
40(2):237-241.
Chami,
F. 1999 The Early Iron Age on Mafia and
its Relationship with the Mainland. Azania
34.
Chami
F. and B. Mapunda 1998 The 1996 Archaeological
Reconnaissance North of the Rufiji Delta.
Nyame
Akuma
49:62-78.
Chami
G1nnd P. Msemwa 1997 A New Look at Culture
and Trade on the Azanian Coast. Current
Anthropology 38:673-677.
Ns+
Environmental
research on the Lower Tana (Kenya)
Washington
Ndiiri (Kenyatta University, Kenya)
*
During
the month of June 1998, research into the
present and past ebt!Q`mental changes was
undertaken within and /round the Tana Delta.
No excavations were carried out, but the
oral interviews resulted in useful information
that will be important to environmental
planners.
Environmental
change over time as m| is well expressed
in the changing levels of the Indian Ocean,
the River Tana and the surroy o vegetation.
Evi*ence of submergence and emergence is
important when considering the effect,@`e
ocean on land. While in some cases land
once under the sea is today under settleme63ad
the reverse is also evident.
Tana River, the main lifeline of the people
in the nearby town of Kipini, can also be
a source %d;ble. The oscillations in
the environment as occasioned by climatic
factors create changes #n marine environment;
the consequence being that the people must
adjust their practices. Thi'( adjustment
is obvious in the change in settlement patterns
from time to time. The fishin3}stry,
not to mention agriculture, form the basis
of the economy of the people in Kipini,
anLkeges in the environment have adversely
affected the output from such economic pursuits.
n
Environmental
conservation in the form of strict observation
of modern farming practices, the conservation
of breeding grounds for fish, mangrove swamps
and relocation of settlements may be an
answer to the present degraded environmental
matrix. However, research results should
be gathered with greater d+pth so as to
shed more light on the present and past
environmental matrices.
Rethinking
the past in Madagascar
Jean-Aim
Rakotoarisoa
(Muse
dArt et dArchologie, Madagascar)
For
the past ten years, archaeological research
in Madagascar has been impacted by new developments
in information technology. Alongside the
traditional methods being used in Madagascar,
we have also used these new technologies
to further our work on archaeological site
inventories. Faced with the vast amount
of results obtained, it was necessary to
acquire a more productive method of analysis.
With ease, our team familiarised itself
with Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
The
recent results are indeed not definitive,
but the trend would be the need to clarify
certain resulting ideas on the chronology
and definition of the cultural phases. Particular
attention should be paid to the stages of
the placement of socio-political apparatus,
and the apparent legitimacy of dominant
groups according to the period under consideration.
This approach is of prime importance if
we are looking for a truly harmonious development
of the entire country. Each Malagasy should
feel a sense of solidarity, since in the
past, their ancestors contributed to the
birth of a country and a nation. Unfortunately,
current documentation tends to prove otherwise
and continues to attribute key roles/achievements
to a minority group of rulers.
Consequently, the reflections on Madagascars
past would always be through a series of
affirmations on the beneficial acts and
regulations of the ancient sovereigns. At
the beginning of the century, various compilations
of these praises in which the obvious
political beginnings were hidden under the
form of so-called scientific documents
were given legitimacy because they were
printed. In the future, we will devote an
important part of our activities to try
to revitalise and clarify as much as possible
the roles played by each social group in
Madagascar, at least during the past one
thousand years.
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RESEARCH
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